Defining Disabilities in Modern World

Table of Contents Introduction Definition Models of Disability and their Implications Conclusion References Introduction Human beings experience different challenges when interacting with their environment especially when they have personal obstacles. A past report by the U. S. Census Bureau categorized about 19% of the American population as having some degree of either physical or intellectual disability (Smart, 2001). Defining disability has not been easy due to the various opinions related to the understanding of the concept.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Defining Disabilities in Modern World specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Disability has been defined in general terms as any impairment or a problem in normal body structure that may hinder the normal functioning of the body (Orto Power, 2007). Some of the impairments identified include that of hearing, sight, cognitive, emotional and motor challen ges. These categories of impairments are further divided into sub-categories. Impairments affecting sight include blurred vision, color blindness, and blindness. World health Organization defines disability as a general term referring to impairments, limitation in the performance of activities, and restrictions when it comes to participating and interacting with the environment (Orto Power, 2007). The paper discusses the various categories of disability and why it is important to define and categorize disabilities. Definition Disability has become a concern all over the world following the increasing awareness by the people. Definition of this concept has undergone significant transformation from the perspective of people with disabilities (PWDs) and the society at large. Disability has significant impact on the society due to the relationships that exists between the individual and the surrounding (Smart, 2001). Efforts to reduce ambiguity in the definition of disability have been made especially by western social-scientific researchers. Models from religious, medical, and social arenas/perspectives have been developed to help in the categorization of disability. The greatest challenge faced by people with disabilities is that impact of attempts to compartmentalize their capabilities (Orto Power, 2007). Human beings are characterized by a natural desire to explain the unexplainable even if it is unpleasant. The need to define and categorize disabilities is therefore understandable. Most studies have recommended the detachment of the definition of a disability from the human experience. Disability has been known to affect every race, class of people, gender, ethnicity, nationality, and even across generations. This is due to the fact that it can at any time either accidently or due to infections of eyes, ears, or the nervous system (Tremain, 2008). Models of Disability and their Implications Researchers interested in understanding disability have used differ ent models in the categorization of people with disability. Categorization is necessary for the investigators since they are able to separately analyze different cases of disability which has been to affect a large section of the society.Advertising Looking for term paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The first is the deficit model which constitutes the people with physical or intellectual impairment (Smart, 2001). Deafness, blindness, paralysis or terminal illness fall in this category and differentiates them from the â€Å"normal† people. This model has been known to create a segregated/isolated society on the basis of capability. This contradicts efforts to create an integrated society despite the human diversity (Tremain, 2008). The second is the medical model of disability which also uses impairments and other deficits in an individual. However, it emphasizes the understanding of the cause, treatme nt, and cure of the disability (Smart, 2001). The model proposes ways of dealing with a given disability, normally in three major phases of illness, treatment, and recovery. This model can be seen as taking positive measures to help the victims attain the normalcy the will enable them function in a manner perceived to be normal. However, this approach may not work well with those with chronic or terminal illness. The model discriminates against those who are terminally disabled by implying that they cannot enjoy what those perceived to be healthy enjoy. The religious models of categorizing disability are the third model and it relates impairment with spiritual deficiency in the person. The perception by the advocates of this model is that the disability is a consequence of sin or a deliberate supernatural act that seeks to pass a lesson to the individual (Orto Power, 2007). They strive to offer a religious account of every disability as well as recommend ways of addressing the â₠¬Å"problem†. Just like the medical model, the religious models do not go well with those with chronic illness since they just need a way of balancing their condition and facing life more positively. The two models utterly condemn this group of PWD by implying that their situations cannot be addressed otherwise. The fourth is the social model of disability which tries to explain the various impairments. The proponents perceive disability to be a consequence of â€Å"natural† occurrence. Disability is seen as a construct of an oppressive society with an historical background (Smart, 2001). People with disabilities have in the recent past raised their concerns about the stigmatization from the society leading to isolation and discrimination. This model, on the other hand, has been praised for challenging the trivialization of representations of PWDs by providing crucial historical backgrounds of disabilities.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Defi ning Disabilities in Modern World specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Conclusion The paper has explored in detail the definition of the complex concept of disability in the modern world. Various working definitions of disability as used by researchers have been highlighted. The conventional definition used by the World Health Organization has also been given. The paper has also discussed the four major models used to categorize disabilities. The importance of each has been given. It can be concluded that the definition and categorization of disability faces great opposition, especially from the disabled and other activists and efforts to reach a mutual understanding of perceiving disability should be made. References Orto, E. A. Power, P. W. (2007). The impact of disability: psychological and social. Springer Publishing Co. Smart, J. (2001). Disability, society, and the individual (2nd ed). Aspen Publishers Tremain, S. P. (2008). Unders tanding disability: post-modernity and models of disability (3rd  ed). London: Continuum This term paper on Defining Disabilities in Modern World was written and submitted by user Clarissa Harrison to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The needs of people and the needs of the environment

The needs of people and the needs of the environment The central question that these readings pose is how the needs of people can be reconciled with the needs of the environment. Although, human beings are a part of this environment, we have an enormous amount of influence on nature.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The needs of people and the needs of the environment specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In many cases, this influence is not beneficial. This is why the authors of these articles urge readers to think about long-term effects of human activities on the planet. More importantly, people have to understand that their welfare is dependent on sustainable environment. Therefore, its protection has to be one of their top priorities. These are the main ideas that have to be discussed and critiqued. One of the concepts that appealed to me is the anthropocene. Generally, it is used to refer to the epoch in which the footprint of human race has become very clear and massi ve. Overall, this term appears to be quite appropriate because human beings did change the surface of the planet within the last three centuries, especially since the time of Industrial Revolution. The main problem is that people’s environmental impact adversely affected many species, water, and air. People often have an anthropo-centric view of the planet, and it is difficult for them to acknowledge that their survival may depend on the bio-physical environment. In my opinion, educators have to change people’s views on this problem, because the protection of environment greatly depends on individual effort. Furthermore, these articles show that the adoption of eco-friendly technologies is not a luxury, but a necessity for every country. Thus, governments should adopt different policies on this problem.Advertising Looking for essay on environmental studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Yet, there is another issue that has been raised by the authors. They refer to the so-called mass extinction events. It is believed that in the past these events were caused by unavoidable factors such as climate change. The key issue is that human activities can be the cause of a mass-extinction event, but many people may not realize it. Certainly, it is possible to argue some of these concerns can be exaggerated, but there are some signs or markers of such events, for instance, the increasing rate of species extinction or the deterioration of coral reefs. Furthermore, one can mention such problems as soil erosion, overfishing, industrial wastes, and so forth. Unless these problems are not addressed, humankind can trigger a true mass-extinction event. This is why many researchers advocate the idea of biodiversity. One of the most important tasks is to promote the variations in ecosystem because in this way ecosystems can be made more sustainable. If people continue to turn a blind eye to the pos sibility of such an event, its probability will dramatically increase. This is why I agree with various authors who try to raise people’s awareness about different environmental problems. Some of the ideas discussed in these articles have been familiar to me. Nevertheless, these readings have prompted me to take a broader look at the role of human beings. On the whole, these articles call for a change in the mindset. They urge people to acknowledge that economic, social and political sustainability is impossible if the needs of the environment will be overlooked. Certainly, it is necessary to cope with specific environmental problems such as water pollution. Yet, at first, people have to see that they are a part of nature, rather than their masters.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The needs of people and the needs of the environment specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More

Many organizations develop strategic plans Assignment

Many organizations develop strategic plans - Assignment Example Since then, this system has been effectively utilized for the purpose of translating an organization’s active business strategies along with its broad mission. In addition, the balanced scorecard has also been used in a few of the most critical drivers that drives the future performance of an organization i.e. business processes, capabilities along with resources. These aspects have been fruitful in ascertaining a greater set of outcomes such as meeting the interests of the consumers along with the development and prosperity of organizations. All these facets of balanced scorecard can prove to be beneficial as it authenticates that the numerous private, public along with not-for-profit organizations have accepted and utilized this particular method. It has also been regarded as a part of their overall strategic management approach. Based on this factor, the authenticity along with the wide applicability of the balanced scorecard in relation to the execution of strategy can be determined. It has also been studied that this particular tool is utilized in order to reduce a lot of operational barriers in a highly professional manner (Claude, 2008). In addition, it has also been learnt that the balanced scorecard can be utilized in a very strategic manner as well. ... Over the years, balanced scorecard has provided great aid to numerous organizations along with suppliers for designing and implementing various strategies. All these factors combined together have been responsible for overcoming the vision barrier to a very large extent. In this regard, Kaplan was able to define the increasing rate of barriers that seem to put the operational capacities of various organizations at stake. In this similar regard, he has also explained that through sustained organizational efforts along with optimum utilization of this particular scorecard, a large number of organizational barriers could be averted. In a different context, Norton, Kaplan and others have delivered weightage on the fact that in order to achieve all round success in an organization, the scorecard needs to be utilized in a tricky manner. They explained that in order to create organizational success, clarity in the communication strategy is needed to be maintained at all levels. This results in the formation of effective strategies as well (Claude, 2008; Niven, 2010). Section 2: A. Critique of the Division’s Use of the Balanced Scorecard The balanced scorecard highlighted upon the most important aspects such as increase undergraduate student retention and engagement, develop students as ethical leaders and agents of positive change among others. All these aspect combined together have proved the authenticity of the balanced scorecard. Other aspects such as increased retention and graduation rates for targeted populations and decreased violations of community standards among others validate the division’s use of the Balanced Scorecard.

Family Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Family - Essay Example ther hand, says the definition of what a family is depends on who is going to provide the definition, a social scientist, the State, a conservative society, or a libertarian society. Anthropologists define family by a cultures biological and marital kinship rules and patterns of reciprocal obligations. Different cultures have different definitions of biological and marital kin, and the obligations kin have to one another. Some cultures use the father’s biological line, or the mother’s or both. Kinship obligations, too, end at different levels for different cultures. As examples, Diem says that brothers, sisters and cousins are distinct in the American culture but not so in African societies. From the point of view of structure-functionalists, families are defined by the needs of the greater society. The definition of family changes when society’s needs change. Examples include those when greater society needs rapid population growth such as after a time of war when procreation is emphasized, as against a period of over population when childless couples are supported. For institutionalists, a family is the "traditional," biological, procreati ve and child-rearing structure. For interactionists, the definition is based on the assumption of family-related role behaviours. For economists, the family is a production and consumption unit, thus defining a household slave in an African or Arabian household or the indentured servant in an early-American household as part of the family. Further, according to Diem, the State’s definition of family follows the structure-functionalist approach, where the State’s needs dictate how the authoritative and legal definition of family shall be formulated. In a Conservative Free Society, as envisioned by Nisbet (1953), where the role of social institutions such as church, economy and educational system, are enhanced and those of the State reduced, the social institutions define family. Church may not recognise an unmarried

Compare and contrast binet and simons approach to measuring Essay

Compare and contrast binet and simons approach to measuring intelligence with that of sternberg - Essay Example In 1905, Binet and Simon devised one of the first tests of measuring intelligence in French children. The test was carried out in order to detect French children that were likely to face difficulties in their studies so that these children could receive special education. Binet and Simon developed tests that assessed each child’s intelligence. As a result of these tests, Binet and Simon discovered that tests of memory, practical skills, puzzle solving skills and vocabulary tests were better at predicting the level of intelligence in school children than the simple sensory tests that was previously used (Binet & Simon, 1916). In the approach employed by Binet and Simon to measuring intelligence in children, children were instructed to perform certain tasks; such as defining abstract terms, defining common words, spotting the differences between two objects, recognising objects in pictures, repeating spoken digits and following simple commands and gestures. Sternberg on his own part proposed an alternative, cognitive-components approach to measuring intelligence (1977); he posited that the level of intelligence of an individual could be measured in terms of a data-analysis component that constitutes some form of multifaceted analysis such as deductive reasoning and logical inference. He used this data and statistical analysis technique to disintegrate mental task performance into its fundamental constituents. Binet and Simon invented what is generally known as the Binet-Simon scale, which encompassed a series of tasks that they thought typically represented the intellectual competencies of the children at different ages. They tested their measurement on a sample of fifty children that were divided into five age groups; each group comprised ten children believed to be averagely intelligent. The main aim of the Binet-Simon scale was to compare the mental abilities of some children to those of their

Natural and Shale Gas Monetization

Natural and Shale Gas Monetization According to the US Central Intelligence, Russia has the highest proven reserves of Natural gas in the world, being this approximately 24.2% of them. Followed by Iran, Qatar and United States (Central Intelligence Agency, 2016) It is good to mention that United States has bigger reserves in comparison to earlier years, because of the Shale Gas Boom, which is not included in the other countries reserves. Table 1: 4 first World Natural Gas Producers Rank Country (Cu m) Date Total World 197,200,000,000,000 1 January 2016 est. 1 Russia 47,800,000,000,000 1 January 2016 est 2 Iran 34,020,000,000,000 1 January 2016 est 3 Qatar 24,530,000,000,000 1 January 2016 est. 4 United States 10,440,000,000,000 1 January 2016 est. 1.1. Natural Gas Resources Very small quantities of Soviet gas had been exported to Poland since the late 1940s, the idea of large-scale imports of Soviet gas into Western Europe seemed to some both unworkable and unwise. The focus of Soviet natural gas production was moving from the Volga/Urals, North Caucasus and Ukraine, to Siberia, which would require additional transportation amounting to several thousand kilometers. (Stern, 2001) The transport problem was resolved by the Siberian gas development of the 1970s and 80s based on the super-giant fields discovered at Medvezhe, Urengoy and Yamburg. With multiple strings of largediameter pipeline being built from Siberia to the Ukraine, it required only a relatively short extension for one or two pipelines to reach Europe (map 2). Between 1970 and 1980 deliveries of Soviet gas to Western Europe increased from 3.4 Bcm to 26 Bcm. By 1990 gas exports had risen to 109 Bcm and Western Europe, with 63 Bcm of imports, was the largest customer for Soviet gas. (Stern, 2001) Figure 1: Old and New Pipelines In the context of increasing demand and declining supply, the importance of Russia as a partner in European gas becomes abundantly clear. The opportunity for a much closer natural gas partnership between Russia and Europe is based on firm foundations (Stern, 2001): Russia has huge discovered resources of gas available for development. Russia has gas reserves of 48 trillion cubic metres (TCM) according to the Russian A+B+C1 classification. Gazprom estimates that it has 28 TCM of reserves in fields in production or being prepared for development, compared with an international estimate of 18.5 TCM of proven and probable reserves in those same fields. Whichever estimate is chosen, it is clear that Russian reserves overwhelm all other gas reserves available to Europe with the exception of Middle East countries. Russian gas production of over 600 Bcm of gas in 2003 is projected to increase to 730 Bcm by 2020 (Stern, 2001). Over the past 35 years, pipeline infrastructure has been established for delivery of very substantial volumes of gas from Russia to Europe (Stern, 2001). As far as Russian exports to Europe are concerned, compared with the position in 1973 when just four countries were supplied with less than 7 Bcm of gas, thirty years later nearly 140 Bcm was exported to nineteen countries (Stern, 2001). Russian gas exports to Europe passing through Ukraine from where a number of pipelines travel west, delivering gas to central and northern Europe. Some lines travel south through Moldova to south eastern Europe and Turkey; others pass through Hungary delivering to the Balkan countries. In 1999, the Yamal pipeline began transporting gas through Belarus and Poland to Germany, providing an alternative to the routes through Ukraine. There is also a pipeline which passes via St Petersburg taking gas into Finland. Another major pipeline takes Russian gas across the Black Sea to Turkey; the Blue Stream pipeline which started transporting gas in 2002 set a new record by laying pipeline in water depths exceeding 2000 meters (Stern, 2001). The next major pipeline bringing additional Russian gas to Europe is expected to be the North European Pipeline (NEP) running from Vyborg in north west Russia via the Baltic Sea to Germany and potentially on to the UK. The possibility of the North European pipeline being able to deliver gas to Sweden and Denmark is also under consideration (Stern, 2001). Figure 2: New Pipelines from Russia On May 2 1, 2014 the media reported that China and the RF reached a 30-ycar gas deal worth about $400 billion. Some sources said the deal had been in the making for about a decade. On Nov. 10, 2014 China and the RF signed a second gas deal in which the RF would supply China with 30 Bern of natural gas via the western route over 30 years. This would require construction of the pipeline Power Sibcria-2. Gazprom signed the 30-ycar contract with Chinas National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) (Reineberg, 2017). The two combined natural gas deals between Russia and China would amount to about 68 Bern which is considerably more than the 45 Bcm the RF provides Germany each year. The gas deals would make China Russias most important customer, second only to Germany (Reineberg, 2017). Figure 3: New Pipelines to China In December 2014 the South Stream pipeline project to supply gas to the south eastern part of Europe was argued in yet another sign of the weakening and decreasing of Russias energy collaboration with Europe EU. The diagram above is available from Gazprom and displays what the scheme would have seen like once completed (Ashton, 2015). This project was intended to reduce risk involved in transporting gas to the Europe by evading Ukraine, much as Gazproms northern gas pipeline to Germany has done. But a flagging political condition means the European units no longer focusing only supply risk and is also focusing on transportation risk. To mitigate the risk of supply, Europes goal is to reduce volume of Russiass supplies (Ashton, 2015). Figure 4: New Pipelines to EU 1.2. Natural Gas Reserves In 2015 Russia`s natural gas reserves (ABC1) amount to 50.2 tcm, which is one percent more than in 2014. The largest gas fields are located in Western Siberia oil and gas bearing province. The growth in gas reserves was provided by gas fields in the Yamal Peninsula Bovanenkovo, Kharasaveyskoye, Yuzhno-Tambeyskoye, Eastern Siberia Kovyktinskoye, Russian Far East Chayandinskoye and on the Arctic Shelf Shtokman, Kruzenshternskoye. In European Russia the central gas reserves are concerted in Astrakhan field and Orenburg areas. In the following graph we can see the reserves and their defined amount . Figure 5: Russia`s largest natural gas fields: reserves About 80% of Russia`s NG natural gas production is developed in the Nadym-Pur-Taz region, Yamalo-Nenets AO. In 2014, three gas fields Zapolyarnoye, Urengoy, Yamburg accounted for more than 40% of country`s gas production. In 2012, gas production was started at the Bovanenkovo field (Yamal Peninsula), and it accounted 42.8 bcm in 2014. It is expected that to 2020 Bovanenkovo will be the largest gas producing field in Russia. Positive production dynamics also featured on Yurkharovskoye field and Beregovoye field (Analytical Center for the Government of the Russian Federation, September 2016). Table 2: Major producing gas fields in Russia Major producing gas fields, (bcm) 2013 2014 Zapolyarnoye 117,5 97,9 Urengoy 90,6 85,5 Yamburg 75,3 62,8 Bovanenkovo 22,8 42,8 Yurkharovskoye 38,4 39,0 Yuzhno-Russkoye 25,1 25,0 Lunskoye 16,4 16,6 Orenburg 16,9 16,3 Beregovoye 10,8 11,2 Astrakhan 11,7 11,1 Medvezhye 12,2 10,4 In 2015, Russia`s natural gas and associated petroleum gas production amounted to 633.4 bcm, which is 0.9% less than in 2014. The decrease was caused by significant reduction of natural gas consumption in Russia. In 2010-2015, the gas supply to the domestic market decreased by 24.8 bcm, or by 5.3%. In 2015, Russia`s natural gas exports increased by 7.1% year on year to 200 bcm. Natural gas imports of the major importers of Russian gas remained relatively stable. A significant decrease was recorded in supplies to the Ukraine. (Analytical Center for the Government of the Russian Federation, September 2016). Figure 6: Natural gas in Russia: production, consumption and exports (2011-2015) In 2015, 79.2% of natural gas production in Russia was provided by Yamalo-Nenets, AO, which is 1.1 pp lower than in 2014. In 2010-2014, YNAO share in Russia`s gas production was 80-83%. In 2015 to 2014 gas production significantly increased in Krasnoyarsk region and Sakha. The largest drop was observed in YNAO (-2%, or -11.6 bcm). Table 3: Russias natural gas production by region Region 2015, bcm Yamalo-Nenets 501 Khanty-Mansi 33 Sakhalin 28 Orenburg 20 Krasnoyarsk 11 Others 41 1.3. Natural Gas Consumption and Production In 2014, the production of electricity and heat energy provided 48.3% of Russia`s natural gas consumption, which is 3.5 pp less than in 2013. Gas consumption decreased by 6.4% in these two sectors, by 2,2% in industry and increased by 0.1% in residential sector (Analytical Center for the Government of the Russian Federation, September 2016).. Figure 7: Russia`s natural gas consumption by sector, 2014, mtce Russia`s LNG Liquid Natural Gas exports and production is developed in a single plant on Sakhalin Island, with a capacity of 9.6 mtpa. LNG is exported by sea to the Asia-Pacific countries, mainly to Japan. There are LNG Liquid Natural Gas plants projects in Russia. The plant on the Yamal Peninsula is under construction, with an installed capacity of 16.5 mtpa, start at 2017-2018. It is also planned to implement projects in Vladivostok and the Baltic Sea and Sakhalin Island (Rosneft). In 2015, Russias share in the global LNG market was 4% (Analytical Center for the Government of the Russian Federation, September 2016).. Figure 8: LNG production and exports in Russia (2009-2015), bcm Russia`s CNG consumption is 450 mcm, or about one percent of the world total. The natural gas consumption in transport is a priority of Russia`s gas industry development. State subsidies for regions are aimed to stimulate the growth of CNG consumption. Gazprom plays the main role in development of the Russian NGV market. Other participants are Rosneft and Novatek (Analytical Center for the Government of the Russian Federation, September 2016).. Figure 9: CNG consumption in road transport, 2008-2015, bcm 1.4. Natural Gas Industry The current Russian gas industry is tightly related to the Soviet gas industry structure as it evolved in the 1970s and 1980s. It was characterized by exploitation of huge deposits and long distances between production sites and consumption centers, which required construction of a comprehensive trunk pipeline network. These characteristics lent themselves to economies of scale and in line with Soviet thinking a unified industry structure intended to minimize costs of extraction and transportation of natural gas. In the centrally planned economy gas was prioritized in electricity and heat production, thereby making more oil available for highly profitable export. The regulated domestic price of natural gas was very low. Natural gas was distributed according to priorities in the centrally planned economy. Consumption of various users power stations, industrial burners and cooking in vast apartment complexes were usually not measured but estimated according to technical standards o f energy needs. The prioritization of natural gas in electricity and heat generation is clearly evident in the consumption structure today; use of gas in the power sector amounts to 40 percent of total gas consumption in Russia (Aune, Golombek, Moe, Rosendahld, 2015). In the 1970s and 1980s extraction and transportation of gas were organized within the Soviet Ministry of the Gas Industry. Then in 1989 a new entity, Gazprom, was established. It got control of the entire Soviet unified gas supply system and was also given a regulatory role. This type of agency was something new an entity outside the ministry structure although it was state owned. When the economic reforms in Russia started for real in 1992, an important element was the creation of new industry organizations. Notably this happened in the oil industry where several new companies were formed and subsequently privatized. In the gas sector the situation was different. The top management of Gazprom maintained that the technical characteristics of the gas industry required a centralized organizational structure. These arguments won over reformers who argued that a split-up of the production side was desirable. In 1992, Gazprom was transformed into a jointstock company, which was subsequently partly privatized. The state, even if it had a minority stake of some 40 percent, retained key control, but generally the company became independent. The new company obtained ownership of all the major physical assets of the Russian gas industry for free. In addition, the functions of the new company were extended to include roles which had earlier been covered by bodies outside the industry: investment and output targets, which had previously been decided by central planning organs, now became part of the internal processes in Gazprom. Distribution to final consumers, which used to be the remit of a separate structure, now became a business activity of Gazprom. Gas exports, which earlier were managed by a special foreign trade organization outside the gas industry, now became part of the activities of the company. In the end, the gas industry became more centralized and monopolized than it had been in the Soviet system. Gazprom did not only get new privileges, it also inherited old obligations. It was expected to continue to supply gas domestically at very low prices, but in exchange the company was allowed to keep a considerable share of the export revenues. Thus a situation emerged were domestic supplies became almost a secondary activity compared to exports, where the big money was earned. Domestic supplies were, however, in volume terms about four times higher than exports to Europe. This arrangement can only be understood in the context of the serious economic crisis and restructuring taking place in the 1990s. Maintaining stable gas supplies was of paramount importance for social stability, and low gas and electricity prices were important instruments to ensure this goal. Gas continued to be distributed like in the centrally planned economy: consumers had to obtain permission to take gas in certain volumes, and new consumers could not freely choose energy sources. Gas was, more than other fuel s, a subsidized commodity and was de facto rationed (Aune, Golombek, Moe, Rosendahld, 2015). 1.5. Natural Gas Pricing Starting rather early in the 1990s, gas prices were in fact increased but from a very low level. By 1996 the average official gas price was around 250 roubles per 1000 m3 (corresponding roughly to 45 USD). But with a deep economic crisis most of Gazproms customers were not able to pay the increasing bills. Many turned to surrogates for payment: goods, shares in enterprises and various services. Others did not pay at all. Gazprom reported that in 1998 their domestic consumers paid for 28.5 percent of the gas deliveries only. According to OECD , only 16 percent of these deliveries were paid in cash. This was the nadir of Gazprom. Then the situation improved: After the economic crisis in 1998 and subsequent rouble devaluation, both Russian exports and the general economy picked up. Gazprom was now allowed to take tougher measures against non-paying customers, and cash payment was widely enforced in the state sector. The companys take-over of local distribution organizations also helped increasing the share of paying customers. By 2000, 62 percent of the delivered gas was paid for, see OECD, and by 2004 Gazprom reported that 98 percent of the domestic deliveries were paid in cash, see OECD (2004). This development also reflects that gas prices had been allowed to fall in real terms: by 2000 gas prices were 62 percent below the 1996 level, see OECD (Aune, Golombek, Moe, Rosendahld, 2015). In the transition from the centrally planned economy to a market oriented system, Gazprom had been given production infrastructure and pipelines that had been built and financed by the Soviet state (see discussion above). Thus Gazprom had very low capital costs and the company could therefore handle losses in the domestic market as long as it kept the export income. But as years went by the need for renewal of the pipeline network as well as investment in production capacity grew. Gazprom therefore started paying more attention to the domestic market, first by devising schemes for payment when cash was lacking, and then, as the general economic crisis subsided in the early 2000s, to argue for domestic price increases: prices should cover operating costs and also allow for accumulation of investment funds. Gazproms argumentation was helped by Russias negotiations to become a WTO member: the Russian government committed to reduce subsidies to domestic customers and raise gas prices to USD 37-42 per 1000 m3 by 2006, and further to USD 49- 57 by 2010, see OECD. Despite the decision to increase the price of gas from 2000, by the end of 2003 the regulated average gas price for industry customers was still low: it corresponded to USD 24 per 1000 m3, see OECD. A plan for raising the regulated gas price to European netback parity European price minus the extra transportation costs and duties on export was authorized by the Russian government in May 2007,); this plan addressed both the concerns of the WTO and Gazproms request. The government foresaw a stepwise increase whereby the domestic price for industry would reach European netback parity by 2011. In 2007, experts considered the plan as feasible even though the price for industrial consumers corresponded to USD 44 per 1000 m3 -the netback price would have been USD 145 per 1000 m3. However, the international oil price increases in the following years implied that the target gas price was steadily increasing because the export gas price was linked to oil. In 2013, the netback price would have been USD 230 per 1000 m3, see Henderson and Pirani, a price level that would have had a detrimental impact on most Russian consumers. In the end the government therefore postponed the netback goal, first to 2014 and later to 2018 (Aune, Golombek, Moe, Rosendahld, 2015).. By 2013 the regulated price had reached USD 105 per 1000 m3, see IEA. Still, according to Gazprom this was not enough to cover investments needed to sustain production in the long run. Gazprom continued to argue that a European netback price should be the goal in order to secure the viability of the gas industry as well as enhance economic efficiency: undervalued prices negatively affect the domestic economy, because there is no favorable environment for promoting gas- and energy-savings as well as for developing high-tech industries. For some years the governments policy was more or less in line with Gazproms wishes: in 2010 the government decided to increase gas prices by 15 percent annually until 2015 (Aune, Golombek, Moe, Rosendahld, 2015).. There was, however, growing concerns that higher domestic gas prices would weaken the competitive position of the manufacturing industry and hamper economic growth. These concerns were enhanced by the significant fall in gas prices in the United States because of the shale gas revolution.3 In the end the policy was adjusted: in the fall of 2013 the government decided to freeze gas prices until, then index the price to inflation, and after 2016 let gas prices grow slowly, see Table 1. According to this plan, gas prices to industry users may on average increase by 3.2 percent annually between 2016 and 2030,. This is supposed to result in a domestic industry gas price slightly above 70 percent of the netback price by 2030. For households, the plan is to increase prices at a rate slightly higher than the one for industry 3.5 percent (Aune, Golombek, Moe, Rosendahld, 2015).. Table 4: s Gas price development plan. Annual growth rates 2016-2020 2021-2025 2026-2030 2016-30 Industry price 4.4 2.9 2.1 3.2 Household price 4.5 3.5 2.6 3.5 To sum up, after the establishment of Gazprom in 1989 the gas industry first became more centralized and monopolized than it had been in the Soviet system. Since 1990, prices of gas have increased considerably but they are still far below the netback price. Whereas Gazprom for years has been pushing for a higher price, the most recent plan for domestic Russian gas prices indicates only a moderate increase in prices (Aune, Golombek, Moe, Rosendahld, 2015).. 1.6. Natural Gas Monetization Techniques The foundations of Russias gas export business were laid during the Cold War. The trade was able to develop despite political opposition partly because West European governments believed gas could be a force for peace and partnership and prosperity. The other main reason has been the excellent track record of first Soviet, and then Russian, gas deliveries to Europe over the past 35 years. With the passing of the Cold War and the increasing need for Europe to develop strong relationships with its energy suppliers, the European Commission proposed an energy dialogue with Russia. In 2001 (Stern, 2001): à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The EU imported 21% of its net oil imports (equal to 16% of consumption) and 41% of gas imports (equal to 19% of consumption); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ 53% of Russias oil exports and 36% of its gas exports were delivered to the EU, and 45% of Russias exports to the EU were energy products. Within the framework of the dialogue, the EU has agreed to recognize certain Russian gas projects as energy infrastructure projects of common interest, specifically: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ the North European gas pipeline for which the EU has agreed to co-finance a feasibility study; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ the Yamal pipeline; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ the Shtokman gas field; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ the Druzhba-Adria oil pipeline link. In 2015, the gas price in the major markets fell by 30-40% compared to the previous year. The causes for the falling gas prices were decreasing oil prices, warm winters in the USA and Europe and fierce competition inside the industry with other gas producers, as well as competition with producers of other energy resources, such as coal and renewable ones (Analytical Center for the Government of the Russian Federation, September 2016). In Green Line we can see the price of Russia comparing in Marron with the price of US. Figure 10: The World Prices of Natural Gas (2005-2015) $/1000 Cubic meters Among the prices from the natural gas in Russia we have the cost for the last 4 months in United states dollars per MBTU (Indexmundi, 2017) Table 5: Prices of the Last 4 Months in Dollars per MBTU Month Price Exchange Rate oct. 2016 4,01 1,26 % nov. 2016 4,54 13,22 % dic. 2016 5,16 13,66 % ene. 2017 5,14 -0,39 % 1.7. Impact of Natural Gas in Russia Economy According to the following graph, Russia got for 2013 73 Billon of Dollars, which is 14% of its total income; the other products are oil and derivatives of oil. Figure 11: Russia gross export sales 2013 (Billon of US Dollars) Russia is a major exporter of crude oil, and natural gas. Sales of these fuels accounted for 68% of Russias total export revenues in 2013, based on data from Russias Federal Customs Service. Russia received almost 4 times as much income from exports crude oil exports and natural gas as petroleum products (Metelitsa, 2014).. Europe, including Turkey, receives all exports of NG natural gas. Asia, particularly China receives substantial volumes of liquefied natural gas or LNG from Russia. Lately, Russia finalized a 30 year, for about $400 billion to supply China with natural gas from fields in Siberia, which later will increase Russian export incomes. North America imports some Russian petroleum products, particularly oils that are unfinished, used in refineries. Although Russia exports less crude oil and less natural gas than it consumes locally, domestic sales of crude oil and natural gas are lower in value than exports because of the vertical integration of the NG and oil industry and also the subsidized domestic prices (Metelitsa, 2014). Almost all Russian oil firms are vertically integrated, owning oil fields and refineries that process crude oil, giving them power in making decisions and regulating price. That is why, these firms can sell crude oil directly to their own refineries at very low prices. Domestic natural gas prices are subsidized too, forcing Russian companies to use export revenue to fund investment in new infrastructure and projects. The energy agency estimates that Russian domestic sales of natural gas and crude oil were nearly about $20 billion in 2013 (Metelitsa, 2014). Although revenue from local sales of crude oil and natural gas in the year 2003 was significantly low than revenue from exports. (Metelitsa, 2014). Oil and natural gas activities make up a large portion of Russias federal budget. According to the Ministry of Finance, 50% of Russias federal budget revenue in 2013 came from mineral extraction taxes and export customs duties on oil and natural gas (Metelitsa, 2014).. 1.8. Future of Natural Gas in Russia and its global impact Gas demand across Europe increased highly over the past 30 years, most of it used for power generation shaped by environmental and commercial advantages enjoyed by gas à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ is the key to continued growth over the next several decades. Imports of gas will be needed increasingly as Europes indigenous supply declines and Russia is in a very good position to expand its market share due to its resource endowment, established infrastructure and markets, and track record as a secure supplier (Stern, 2001). These advantages have been recognised and reinforced politically by an energy partnership between the EU and Russia which recognizes Russias growing role as a source of energy and its contribution particularly in terms of gas and oil supplies. In summary, the Russian contribution to European energy balances both oil and gas is substantial

Eating Disorders in Online Communities :: Communication Computers Papers

The Internet has an infinite amount of resources to occupy its users, and certainly two of the most frequently used applications are that of the chat room and message boards. Chat rooms perfectly exemplify the concept of an online community, where real-time communication happens between users everywhere in the world. Whereas message boards allow for the posting of journals and stories that can later be responded to by others that connect to that website. These virtual interfaces provide the backdrop for a whole new dimension of social interaction. The people who populate this particular form of online community, of course, deserve extensive examination. Many individuals, for instance, seek to communicate their problems and self-destructive tendencies. Significant niches of these people specifically correspond about eating disorders. The motivations and purposes for which they devote their time and energies certainly provide for an interesting case study. When examining the many dementias of chat rooms and message boards, it becomes imperative to consider the individuals who most frequently take advantage of these platforms to discuss eating disorders. These people, obviously, feel the need to communicate on some level with others. What they wish to communicate about, however, literally covers every dementia of the disorder. The wide and limitless variety of chat rooms and message boards on this subject caters to a vast span of related topics; individuals who have eating disorders, are seeking out information, and wish to help others all have a distinct space for discussion. The eating disorder chat participants come into contact with various worldviews and lifestyles that are typical of a diverse web community. Although I know that a countless number of people take advantage of this communication form everyday, it still remains a question as to why eating disorder victims choose to participate. The eating disorder victims who frequent chat rooms and message boards must do so for a massive span of reasons. Logically, I would assume that these people choose this method of communication because they prefer it instead of other alternatives. Perhaps they dislike talking with people about their problem face-to-face. After all, it cannot be ignored that the nature of chat rooms and message boards eliminates the physical connectedness requirement of communication. It is probable that embarrassment, shame, and countless other emotions play significant roles in the victim's decision.